Wanted to start writing this online somewhere.
I have run into some really funky and serious problem trying to install Drupal 7 on CentOS LAMP stack.
This has got me stumped. And about to drive me insane. The problem occured when 7.12 came out in conjunction with PHP 5.3.10 and reverting back to older versions has not fixed the problem.
The installation is stopping and returning back to the DB details screen. It creates exactly 31 tables too, always the same 31. Further compounding the issues is there isn't a single error in a single log! I even turned logging up on mysql and php. NOTHING! Talk about majorly frustrating.
I can't even get plane vanilla 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, or 7.12 to install. I've tried them all. And I've also tried my own code base.

Comments
Well guess what. Turned out
Well guess what. Turned out to be the APC Op Code Cache settings. It was the APC file stat (apc.stat) that I had turned off - for performance - turning it back on (apc.stat=1) and the install problems went away.
Brady
@fastglassllc
@derailedonline
disable all cache + optimizing
I had the same problem: right after submitting form with DB credentials it was returning back to DB configuration form. Some tables and settings.php were created, but no admin user was created.
I was running Drupal 7.12 on Zend Server CE 5.1.0 with php5.3.5 and MySQL 5.1.
So Perignon gave right direction - caching of the server!
To make it working I had to disable temporary:
1. APC (Alternative PHP Cache)
2. Zend Data Cache
3. Zend Optimizer+
Right after success installation I enabled options back. It works as charm!
p.s. Perignon, thanks for pinch :)
No problem!
No problem!
Brady
@fastglassllc
@derailedonline
apc causes install fail for sure
I could not install any new site db until I disabled apc either. 31 tables would be created and return to the database setup screen. Thank you for addressing this. It should be in the Drupal troubleshooting Guide.
Workaround on Ubuntu 14.04
On a clean Ubuntu 14.04 installation:
$ sudo php5dismod opcache$ sudo service apache2 restart
install Drupal
$ sudo php5enmod opcache$ sudo service apache2 restart